While some researchers have claimed that direct instruction is not sufficient to cope with the thousands of words that students encounter every year in their reading, others strongly support a systematic approach to teaching vocabulary. However, this approach does not simply mean reciting dictionary definitions or even writing sentences for a prescribed list of vocabulary words. Instead, extensive research tells us that students must encounter words multiple times and in multiple contexts.

In their book, Classroom Instruction That Works, Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) review the research on vocabulary instruction. In Chapter 11, “Teaching Specific Types of Knowledge,” they make five research-based generalizations about vocabulary instruction:

1. Students must encounter words in context more than once to learn them.
2. Instruction in new words enhances learning those words in context.
3. One of the best ways to learn a new word is to associate an image with it.
4. Direct vocabulary instruction works.
5. Direct instruction on words that are critical to new content produces the most powerful learning.

In the same chapter, the authors also present a five-step process for teaching new terms and phrases:

1. Present students with a brief explanation or description of the new term or phrase.
2. Present students with a nonlinguistic representation of the new term or phrase.
3. Ask students to generate their own explanations or descriptions of the term or phrase.
4. Ask students to create their own nonlinguistic representation of the term or phrase.
5. Periodically ask students to review the accuracy of their explanations and representations.

What is a nonlinguistic representation? As explained by the authors, researchers believe that knowledge is stored in two forms: linguistic and imagery. While the linguistic form involves the written and spoken word, the imagery form includes mental pictures and physical sensations. Including this second form of knowledge in vocabulary development can have a powerful effect on student achievement.

Nonlinguistic representations include graphic organizers, physical models, mental images, pictures and pictographs, and kinesthetic activity. These representations are particularly suited to the types of activity typically included in hands-on, inquiry-based science. While engaged in a science lesson, lab, or activity, students are constructing contextual, nonlinguistic “definitions” of key terms and concepts. Depending on the content and terms being addressed, this could take many forms – modeling the process of erosion, building a weather instrument such as a wind vane, or investigating which objects sink or float to learn about the concepts of density and buoyancy. In all of these examples, students are developing informal definitions of scientific vocabulary through their investigations. Of course, kinesthetic activity can also include creative movement, dance, charades, and drama – but it is important to note that even the simple act of completing a lab activity counts!

When should this contextual, nonlinguistic development take place? Many researchers advocate that experience of a word in context should occur prior to encountering the word in written text as students can use this network of knowledge to bolster their comprehension. In Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock’s five-step instructional sequence, exploration and contextual experience through labs and hands-on activity would follow steps 1 and 2 (in which the teacher provides a description and nonlinguistic representation). Students would use their direct experiences to then create their own explanations and nonlinguistic representations – in and of themselves formative assessment of the activities.

In addition to creating nonlinguistic representations through kinesthetic, inquiry-based activity, constructivist pedagogy emphasizes that students have the opportunity to create representations and definitions within a social context. Small group work and discussion allow students to compare results and discuss findings, leading to rich definitions and deep understanding of vocabulary from multiple perspectives.

Use the books and web sites below to learn more about nonlinguistic representations and their role in vocabulary development. While we’ve mainly discussed the kinesthetic activity of hands-on science as a means of creating these representations, it is important to remember that graphic organizers, models, mental imagery, and pictures are also helpful.